Tuberculosis-diabetes comorbidities: Mechanistic insights for clinical considerations and treatment challenges

Figure 1 Pathophysiological relationships between tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus and impacts of exogenous and endogenous factors. Both tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus show a bidirectional relationship at various points as depicted, which are affected by exogenous and endogenous factors. GH: Growth hormone; HCV: Hepatitis C virus; ART: Antiretroviral therapy; CTLA-4: Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte associated protein 4; PD-1: Programmed cell death protein 1; PDL-1: Programmed cell death ligand 1; IR: Insulin resistance; TB: Tuberculosis; COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019; HIV: Human immunodeficiency virus; MDR: Multi-drug resistant; XDR: Extreme drug resistance; TDR: Total drug-resistance; IL: Interleukin; TNFα: Tumor necrosis factor alpha.