Diabetes and fatty liver: Involvement of incretin and its benefit for fatty liver management

Figure 2 Intracellular mechanism of incretin hormones. The binding of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and glucagon-like peptide-1 with their respective receptors increase cyclic adenosine monophosphate and activation of protein kinase A. This result in the increase of Ca²⁺ levels, mediating the fusion of insulin-containing granules with the plasma membrane and insulin secretion from pancreatic β cells. ATP: Adenosine triphosphate; cAMP: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; Ca²⁺: Calcium; [Ca2+]i: Calcium influx; EPAC2: Exchange protein activated by cAMP2; GIPR: Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor; GLP-1R: Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor; K_ATP-channel: ATP-sensitive potassium channel; K⁺: Kalium; PKA: Protein kinase A; VDCC: Voltage-gated calcium channels.