Accessibility and utilization of healthcare services among diabetic patients: Is diabetes a poor man’s ailment?

Table 1 Empirical evidence concerning association between diabetes and poverty

Publication year	Objective(s)	Design	Data collection	Results	Ref.
2013	The study examined the association between neighborhood-level poverty and hospital admission rates for T2DM in Rhode Island	Longitudinal study	Rhode Island’s hospital discharge data	The study found that poverty increased from 3% to 40%, and the associated diabetes admission rates increased from less than 2% to 30% per 1000 residents	[9]
2011	The study examined ‘‘upstream’’ influences (the social determinants of health) that contribute to ‘‘downstream’’ health disparities, focusing on variations in T2DM risk	Exploratory study	Mixed data collection of focus group and survey	The results showed that the most significant barriers to health and the source of T2DM disparities in the target population were structural. In other words, they were derived from the conditions within which individuals live, work, and play	[17]
2002	The study investigated the profile of diabetes and its complications	Comparative study	Medical diagnosis	The results revealed that the prevalence of diabetes and impaired glucose tolerance was substantially lower among the low-income group than in the high-income group	[19]
2012	The study assessed the relationship between SES and T2DM in India	Cross-sectional survey	Self-reporting diabetes status	The study revealed that individuals with the highest SES seem to be at extreme risk for T2DM	[20]
2012	The study sought to determine whether inequality of income was connected with diabetes prevalence and inequality of care under a national health insurance program in Asia	Cross-sectional survey	National Health Insurance Scheme	The study revealed that the prevalence of diabetes was higher in low-income earners compared to middle-income counterparts	[21]
2014	The study examined the role of neighborhood poverty and racial composition in predicting race differences in diabetes incidence	Cross-sectional survey	The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, medical examination and interview	The study found that poverty was positively associated with diabetes for both Black and White people. Residing in a poor neighborhood amplified the odds of having diabetes for Black and White people	[22]
2019	It evaluated socioeconomic disparities in undiagnosed, diagnosed, and total diabetes as well as lifestyle variables as contributing factors to diabetes disparities in South Africa	Cross-sectional study	South African National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey	As measured by self-reported clinical data, diabetes was more prevalent among higher socioeconomic groups in South Africa	[23]
2023	This study compared rural-urban differentials in prevalence and lifestyle factors associated with pre-diabetes and diabetes in the elderly in southwest China	Cross-sectional health interview and examination survey	Anthropometric measurements as well as blood pressure and fasting blood glucose measurements	The study revealed that the incidence of pre-diabetes and diabetes was higher among urban older adults compared to their rural contemporaries in southwest China	[24]
2023	The study examined the trends in income-related inequalities in diabetes prevalence and identified the contribution of determining factors	Estimation of income-related inequalities in diagnosed diabetes	National Health Interview Survey	The study revealed that diabetes was more prevalent in low-income populations

SES: Socioeconomic status; T2DM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus.