Efficacy of probiotics on the modulation of gut microbiota in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy

Figure 3 The gut microbiota could contribute to the favorable production of short-chain fatty acids, reactive oxygen species and D-amino acids against progression of diabetic nephropathy. Fecal microbiota transplantation consists of fecal microbiota infusion from a healthy donor to a recipient, which has been likely more successful than conventional therapy for diabetic nephropathy. Note that some critical events such as cytokine-induction have been omitted for clarity. SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; DN: Diabetic nephropathy; DM: Diabetes mellitus.