Improving nutrition for the prevention of gestational diabetes: Current status and perspectives

Table 2 Summary of observational studies on the relationship between nutrition during pregnancy and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus

Ref.	Population, sample size	Nutritional factors/diet pattern	Comparison	RR/OR of GDM (95%CI)
Radesky et al[52], 2008	1733 pregnant United States women	Diet type and frequency of red and processed meat consumption	Macronutrient energy partition and nutrient density substitution models	No association
Karamanos et al[37], 2014	Multicenter study of 10 Mediterranean countries, 1076 pregnant women	Mediterranean diet index (MDI), reflecting the degree of adherence to the MedDiet pattern of eating	Lower tertile of MDI (poor adherence) vs the upper tertile (good adherence)	OR 0.655(0.495-0.867)
He et al[42], 2015	3063 pregnant Chinese women	Vegetable pattern	Highest tertile vs lowest tertile	RR 0.79 (0.64-0.97)
		Protein-rich pattern		No association
		“Prudent” pattern		No association
		Sweets and seafood pattern		RR 1.23 (1.02-1.49)
Popova et al[22], 2017	680 pregnant Russian women	Fruit consumption	> 12 servings per week vs less consumption	OR 0.5 (0.3-0.8)
Elvebakk et al[50], 2018	702 pregnant Norwegian women	Intake of food groups	Women who developed GDM and women who did not develop GDM	No association
Liang et al[45], 2018	6299 Chinese pregnant women	Total protein	Highest tertile vs lowest tertile	RR 1.92 (1.10-3.14)
		Animal protein		RR 1.67 (1.19-2.93)
		Vegetable protein intake		No association
Assaf-Balut et al[38], 2018	874 Spanish women	Degree of adherence to a MedDiet pattern based on six food targets	High adherence (complying with 5-6 targets); moderate adherence (2-4 targets); low adherence (0-1 targets)	OR 0.35 (0.18-0.67)
Hu et al[43], 2019	1014 pregnant Chinese women	"Traditional pattern" (high vegetable, fruit, and rice intake)	Quartile 4 versus quartile 1	OR 0.44 (0.27-0.70)
		Whole grain-seafood pattern		OR 1.73, (1.10-2.74)

RR: Relative risk; OR: Odds ratio; CI: Confidence interval; GDM: Gestational diabetes mellitus.