Improving nutrition for the prevention of gestational diabetes: Current status and perspectives

Table 1 Summary of observational studies on the association of prenatal nutrition with the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus

Ref.	Population, sample size	Nutritional factors/diet pattern	Comparison	RR/OR of GDM (95%CI)
Zhang et al[32], 2006	13110 United States women	Fiber intake	Highest vs lowest quintile	RR 0.67 (0.51-0.90)
Zhang et al[30], 2006	13110 United States women	Western diet high in red meat and processed meat, refined grain products, sweets, fries, and pizza	Highest vs lowest quintile	RR 1.63 (1.20-2.21)
		“Prudent diet” characterized by high intake of fruit, green leafy vegetables, poultry, and fish	Lowest vs highest quintile	RR 1.39 (1.08-1.80)
Chen et al[24], 2009	13475 United States women	Sugar-sweetened cola	5 servings per week vs < 1 serving per month	RR 1.22 (1.01-1.47)
Bowers et al[25], 2011	13475 United States women	Heme iron intake	Highest vs lowest quintile	RR 1.58 (1.21-2.08)
Bowers et al[27], 2012	13475 United States women	Animal fat	Highest vs lowest quintile	RR 1.88 (1.36-2.60)
Tobias et al[31], 2012	15254 United States women	Mediterranean diet	Highest vs lowest quartile	RR 0.76 (0.60-0.95)
Bao et al[28], 2013	15294 United States women	Animal protein	Highest vs lowest quintile	RR 1.49 (1.03-2.17)
Bao et al[26], 2014	15027 United States women	Fried foods	> 7 times per week vs < 1 time per week	RR 1.88 (1.34-2.64)
Bao et al[29], 2014	15265 United States women	Diet low in carbohydrates but high in animal fat and protein	Highest vs lowest quartile	RR 1.36 (1.13-1.64)
Schoenaker et al[33], 2015	3853 Australian women	'Meats, snacks and sweets' pattern	Bottom and top tertiles of dietary pattern scores	RR 1.35 (0.98-1.81).
		'Mediterranean-style' pattern	Bottom and top tertiles of dietary pattern scores	RR 0.85 (0.76-0.98)
Popova et al[22], 2017	457 Russian women	Sausage	> 3 times per week vs less than once per week	OR 2.2 (1.2-4.1)
		Legumes	1-2 times per week vs less frequent consumption	OR 0.58 (0.36-0.94)

RR: Relative risk; OR: Odds ratio; CI: Confidence interval; GDM: Gestational diabetes mellitus.