Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor-induced autoimmune diseases: Current evidence

Table 5 Emerging risk factors for development of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor-induced bullous pemphigoid

Risk factors	Possible risk/trigger factor1
Older age (> 70 yr of age)[57,59,68]	Longer duration of DPP-4i use[64]
Male gender[64,71]	Patients with dementia[53,54]
Specific HLA like HLA-DQB1*03:01 (In Japanese population)[73]	Concomitant use of spironolactone[53]
Certain DPP-4i[63,64] (i.e. vildagliptin, linagliptin)2	Chronic kidney disease[54,77] and haemodialysis[76]
	Thermal Burn[75]

¹Based on small studies and case reports.

²High likelihood of modifications of the list as new data emerges. DPP-4i: Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor; HLA: Human leucocyte antigen.