Role of three-dimensional printing and artificial intelligence in the management of hepatocellular carcinoma: Challenges and opportunities

Table 4 Artificial intelligence application in hepatocellular carcinoma prognosis

	First author	Parameters employed	AI classifier	Sizes of the training/validation sets	Outcomes	Performance	Ref.
1	Chaudhary K	DNA methylation, RNA, and microRNA profiling	Several	360 patients (training:validation = 6:4)	Overall survival	0.701,2, 0.66-0.701,3, 0.67-0.821,4	[122]
2	Chicco D	50 laboratory and clinical parameters	Several	165 patients with HCC	Overall survival	RF: 77.21, 0.7665; Linear SVM: 77.15, 0.7631; MLP: 72.75, 0.6951; Radial SVM: 68.05, 0.6631; DT: 65.95, 0.6501	[123]
3	Liu X	Laboratory results, data from immunochemistry of peripheral blood mononuclear cells, tumor characteristics	GBA classifier	136/563/1054	Risk of HCC-related death	0.8441,2, 0.8271,3, 0.8061,4	[124]
4	Shi HY	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, tumor characteristics	ANN	22926 patients	5-yr survival following surgical resection	96.573,5, 0.8851,3, 97.434,5, 0.8711,4, 74.234,6	[125]
5	Chiu HC	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, tumor characteristics	ANN	434, 341, and 264 patients for 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival(training:validation = 8:2)	1-, 3-, and 5-yr overall survivalfollowing surgical resection	98.5-99.52,5, 0.980-0.9931,2, 99.7-1002,6, 96.2-99.22,7, 72.1-85.13,5, 0.798-0.8751,3, 71.4-88.63,6, 50.0-82.13,7	[126]
6	Qiao G	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, tumor characteristics	ANN	362/1813/1044 patients	Survival following surgical resection	0.8551,2, 80.002,6, 73.402,7, 0.8321,3, 78.673,6, 75.703,7, 0.8291,4, 77.424,6, 78.084,7	[127]
7	Guo L	RNA sequencing	RF	239/130 patients	Overall survival	893,5	[128]
8	Saillard C	Hematoxylin and eosin-stained WSI	CNN	309/3424 WSIs	Survival following surgical resection	0.75-0.781,2, 0.68-0.701,4	[129]
9	Zhong BY	ALBI/CTP stage	ANN	548/1154/1754	Survival of patients treated with chemoembolization as monotherapy	ALBI-based: 0.7991,4, 0.7001,4; CTP-based: 0.7291,4, 0.8021,4	[130]
10	Zhong BY	ALBI/CTP stage	ANN	319/614/1244	Survival of patients treated with chemoembolization and sorafenib	ALBI-based: 0.7161,4, 0.8231,4; CTP-based: 0.7791,4, 0.6931,4	[131]
11	Zhang L	CT scans, clinical features	CNN	120/813 patients	Survival of patients treated with chemoembolization and sorafenib	0.7171,2, 0.7141,3	[132]
12	Liu QP	CT radiomics, clinical parameters	DNN-DAE	243 patients	Overall survival following TACE	0.87-0.931,3	[108]
13	Mähringer-Kunz A	Routine laboratory tests and clinicopathological parameters	ANN	125/57 patients	1-yr overall survival following TACE	0.771,2, 0.831,3, 77.83,6, 81.03,7	[133]
14	Liu X	Routine laboratory tests and clinicopathological parameters	ANN	1480/637 patients	Progression-free survival. Overall survival	0.8661,2, 0.7301,3. 0.8771,2, 0.8041,3	[134]
15	Ho WH	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, surgery parameters	ANN, DT	427, 354, and 297 patients for 1-, 3-, and 5-yr survival (training:validation = 8:2)	1-, 3-, and 5-yr disease-free survival following surgical resection	ANN: 0.963-0.9891,2, 93.5-96.32,6, 91.6-97.92,7, 0.774-0.8641,3, 70.0-78.73,6, 54.2-92.73,7. DT: 0.675-0.8251,2, 19.6-94.82,6, 45.8-97.92,7, 0.561-0.7181,3, 0-88.53,6, 37.5-96.43,7	[135]
16	Bedon L	DNA methylation profiling	RF-based	300/74 specimens	6-mo progression-free survival	67.1-80.62,5, 64.8-80.24,5	[136]
17	Schoenberg MB	Routine laboratory tests and clinicopathological parameters	RFS	127/53 patients	Disease-free survival following resection	0.766-0.7881,3	[137]
18	Wu CF	Laboratory tests and clinicopathological parameters, treatment data	ANN	252 patients(training:validation = 8:2)	1-yr and 2-yr disease-free survival following RFA	0.72-0.771,3, 56.3-63.63,6, 70.0-71.83,7	[138]
19	Divya R	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, tumor characteristics	APO, SVM, RF	152 patients	Recurrence following RFA	95.53,5, 95.13,6, 95.83,7	[139]
20	Huang Y	Demographics, laboratory tests, tumor characteristics	GBS classifier	5928/1483 patients	Recurrence following surgical resection. Overall survival	0.7041,2, 0.697-0.7131,3. 0.565-0.7361,2, 0.551-0.7511,3	[140]
21	Shen J	Disease-free related genes sequencing	DT, SVM	315 HCC patients	Recurrence following surgical resection	DT: 74.195, 0.751, 70.414,5. SVM: 80.655, 0.5951	[141]
22	Wang W	CT radiomics, clinical data	CNN, SVM, RF	167 patients	Early recurrence following surgical resection	0.723-0.8251,3	[142]
23	Ji GW	CT radiomics, laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters	Several	210/1073/1534 patients	Recurrence time following surgical resection	Radiomics model: 0.748-0.7521,2, 0.781-0.8011,3, 0.733-0.7411,4. Clinical model: 0.716-0.7271,2, 0.707-0.7391,3, 0.696-0.7161,4	[143]
24	Xu D	Routine laboratory tests and clinicopathological parameters, intra-operative parameters	BN-based	995 patients	Recurrence time following surgical resection	0.573,5, 0.573,6	[144]
25	Jianzhu B	Several including immune, tumor, nutrition, and indicators	CS-SVM	776 liver cancer recurrences	Recurrence time. Recurrence location	Mean square error = 9.2101, 95.75, 0.951	[145]
26	Yamashita R	Hematoxylin and eosin-stained WSI	CNN	299/533/1984 WSIs	Recurrence following surgical resection	0.7241,3, 0.6831,4	[77]
27	Liao H	Hematoxylin and eosin-stained WSI	RF	491 WSIs	Overall survival	0.563-0.7061,3, 0.565-0.6211,4	[146]
28	Saito A	Hematoxylin and eosin-stained WSI	SVM	69/894	Recurrence time following surgical resection	99.82,5, 68.1-80.64,5	[147]
29	Liang JD	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters	SVM	83 patients	Recurrence following RFA	73-823,5, 0.60-0.691,3, 77-863,6, 73-823,7	[148]
30	An C	MRI scans	CNN	141 HCC lesions	Local tumor progression following MWA	0.7281	[149]
31	Nam JY	Routine laboratory tests and clinicopathological parameters	DNN	349/214 patients	Post-transplant HCC recurrence	0.62-0.751,3, 0.63-0.763,6, 0.46-0.623,7	[150]
32	Nam JY	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, tumor characteristics	DNN	349/214 transplanted patients	Post-transplant HCC recurrence	0.751,3, 763,6, 463,7	[150]
33	Rodriguez-Luna H	Genotyping data from microsatellite mutations/deletions	ANN	19 transplanted patients	Post-transplant HCC recurrence	89.53,5	[151]
34	Guo D	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters CT radiomics	LASSO	93/40 transplanted patients	Recurrence free-survival following liver transplantation	0.675-0.7851,2, 0.705-0.7891,3	[152]
35	Lau L	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, donor characteristics	ANN, RF	90/90 transplants	Graft failure/primary nonfunction. 3-mo graft failure	ANN: 0.734-0.8351,3; RF: 0.787-0.8181,3. ANN: 0.5591,3, RF: 0.7151,3	[153]
36	Briceño J	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, surgical parameters, donor characteristics	ANN	1003 liver transplants	3-mo graft failure	0.806-0.8211,3	[154]
37	Ershoff BD	Laboratory results, clinicopathological parameters, donor characteristics	DNN	46035/11509	90-d post-transplant survival	0.695-0.7081,3, 30.9-35.83,6, 88.1-90.83,7	[155]

¹Area under the receiver operating curve or c-index.

²Training.

³Internal validation.

⁴External validation/testing.

⁵Accuracy (%).

⁶Sensitivity (%).

⁷Specificity (%).

ALBI: Albumin-bilirubin; ANN: Artificial neural network; APO: Artificial plant optimization; BN: Bayesian network; CNN: Convolutional neural network; CS: Cuckoo-search; CT: Computed tomography; CTP: Child-Turcotte-Pugh; DNN: Deep neural network; DAE: Deep auto-encoder; DT: Decision tree; GBS: Gradient boosting survival; HCC: Hepatocellular carcinoma; LASSO: Least absolute shrinkage and selection operator; MLP: Multi-layer perceptron neural network; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging; MWA: Microwave ablation; RF: Random forest; RFA: Radiofrequency ablation; SVM: Support vector machine; TACE: Transarterial chemoembolization; US: Ultrasound; WSI: Whole-slide image.