Role of autophagy in cholangiocarcinoma: An autophagy-based treatment strategy

Table 1 Small molecules able to induce autophagic activity

Agents	Mechanism of action
GDC-0941	Inhibitor of class I PI3K
GDC-0980	Dual inhibitor of PI3K and mTORC1
Everolimus	mTORC1 inhibitor
Temsirolimus	mTORC1 inhibitor
Rapamycin	mTORC1 inhibitor
Tat–beclin 1 peptide	Releases beclin-1 into cytoplasm-regulate autophagosome formation
Metformin	AMPK activator
Fluspirilene	Antagonists of L-type Ca2+ channels
Loperamide	Antagonists of L-type Ca2+ channels
Amiodarone	Antagonists of L-type Ca2+ channels
Isoliensinine	Natural alkaloid
Cepharanthine	Natural alkaloid

mTORC1: Mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1; AMPK: 5’ AMP-activated protein kinase; PI3K: Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinases; AKT: Protein kinase B; Beclin-1: The mammalian ortholog of the yeast autophagy-related gene 6 (Atg6).