Evolution of stereoscopic imaging in surgery and recent advances

Table 5 Other prototype projection systems

Ref.	Year	Projection system for 3D	Who and what assessed	Objective outcomes	Subjective outcomes
Taffinder et al[45]	1999	Dual channel scope with autostereoscopic/glass free screen	28 subjects (16 novices and 12 experienced laparoscopic surgeons) Novices = basic grasping and cutting lab based skills Experienced = suturing and complex cutting lab based skills	Time and performance score (ICSAD assessment tool) Significant improvement in 3D over 2D laparoscopy	No side effects reported with 3D
Ohuchida et al[46]	2009	Dual channel scope with “Cyberdome” projection system	23 novices 6 × lab based skills tasks	Time, errors and performance Significant improvement in all parameters in 3D with cyberdome over 2D	NA
Storz et al[47]	2011	Dual-channel scope + wavelength multiplex camera and monitor with polarising glasses	30 subjects (20 medical students and 10 experienced laparoscopic surgeons) 5 × lab based skills tasks	Time and errors In 4 out 5 tasks, significant reduction in time in 3D, in 4out of 5 tasks, significant reduction in errors	NA
Khoshabeh et al[48]	2012	Dual-channel scope + Multiview autostereoscopic display/glass free screen	3 experienced laparoscopic surgeons 2 × lab based skills tasks	Time and errors Reduced time and errors using 3D	NA

NA: Not available; 3D: Three-dimensional; 2D: Two-dimensional.