Evolution of stereoscopic imaging in surgery and recent advances

Table 2 Dual channel laparoscopes - Robotic fixed screen

Ref.	Year	Projection system for 3D	Who and what assessed	Objective outcomes	Subjective outcomes
Falk et al[19]	2001	Da Vinci	15 experienced laparoscopic surgeons 6 × lab based skills tasks (increasing difficulty)	Time and errors in 2D and 3D and 2DHD (I repetition in each view) Significant differences in time and errors in 3D	Only 33% felt 3D better view No detrimental symptoms reported
Munz et al[20]	2004	Da Vinci	11 experienced laparoscopic surgeons 4 × lab based skills tasks	Errors and performance (ICSAD assessment - time, no. movements and distance moved) Significant difference in both in 3D	NA
Moorthy et al[21]	2004	Da Vinci	10 surgeons of varying experience Lab based suturing task	Time and distance travelled of instruments in 2D and 3D Significant difference in both in 3D	NA
Badani et al[22]	2005	Da Vinci	7 surgeons (3 experienced with Da Vinci, 4 not) 2 × lab based suturing tasks	Time and errors Significant difference in 3D in all areas	NA
Blavier et al[23]	2007	Da Vinci	40 medical students Lab based skills task	Errors, performance and learning curve Significant difference in 3D	No detrimental symptoms reported
Byrn et al[24]	2007	Da Vinci	12 surgeons of varying experience 4 × lab based skills tasks	Time and errors in 2D and 3D Significant difference in 3D	No detrimental symptoms reported
Blavier et al[25]	2007	Da Vinci	60 medical students 4 × lab based skills task (increasing difficulty)	Specific performance metric score Significant difference in 3D in all tasks	No detrimental symptoms reported
Fishman et al[27]	2008	Da Vinci and prototype Ames stereoscopic camera	12 subjects of varying exposure to stereoptic systems	Time for completion while altering binocular disparity of stereoptic camera until 0% (matching 2D vision)	NA
Blavier et al[28]	2009	Da Vinci	Lab based skills task using Da Vinci manipulator 80 subjects (60 novice individuals and 20 expert laparoscopic surgeons) Lab based task	Significant difference with 3D from binocular disparity Time for task completion and estimation of time in 2D or 3D not both Significant difference in 3D for novices, similar results for experts	NA

NA: Not available; 3D: Three-dimensional; 2D: Two-dimensional.