Endoscopic management of hilar biliary strictures

Table 1 Etiology of benign and malignant hilar strictures[1]

Malignant hilar strictures

Primary tumors (cholangiocarcinoma)

Local extension (gallbladder cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and pancreatic cancer)

Lymph node metastases (Breast, colon, stomach, ovaries, lymphoma, and melanoma)

Benign hilar strictures

Postoperative injuries (cholecystectomy, liver transplantation, liver resection, and biliodigestive anastomosis)

Primary sclerosing cholangitis

Others (stone disease, follicular cholangitis, parasite infection, granular cell tumor, chronic fibroinflammatory process, compression from portal cavernomatosis, granulomatous process, and lymphoplasmacyticscleros ingpancreatitis/cholangitis)