Probiotics in hepatology: An update

Table 1 Effects of probiotics on different disorders in experimental alcoholic liver disease

Disorder	Biomarker changes	Ref.
Liver steatosis	↓ Liver mass, ↓ content of triglycerides, free fatty acids, and cholesterol in the liver tissues	[50-52,54]
Liver inflammation	↓ Myeloperoxidase activity, expression of tumor necrosis factor alpha gene and neutrophil infiltration in the liver	[54]
Oxidative stress in liver	↓ Level of nitric oxide and malondialdehyde and ↑ level of glutathione and catalase in the liver tissue	[50,51,54]
Death of hepatocytes	↓ Serum aminotransferases	[50-54]
Systemic inflammation	↓ Serum IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha	[51-53]
Bacterial translocation	↓ Serum lipopolysaccharide	[51-54]
Gut dysbiosis	↑ Firmicutes, Clostridiales and Lactobacillales; ↓ Proteobacteria and Campylobacterales	[51,53]
Damage to the intestinal epithelium	↓ Serum diamine oxidase	[53]
Increased intestinal permeability	↓ Serum D-lactate, ↑ the amount of occludin and other protein of tight junction in the gut epithelium, ↓ intestinal permeability for dyes	[50,52-54]
Dyslipidemia	↓ Serum cholesterol and triglycerides	[50,52-54]

Table 2 Effects of probiotics on different disorders in experimental metabolic associated fatty liver disease

Disorder	Biomarker changes	Ref.
Liver steatosis	↓ Liver mass, the size and number of lipid droplets, the content of triglycerides, free fatty acids, and cholesterol in the liver tissues	[60-66]
Obesity	↓ Body mass, subcutaneous fat	[61-63,65,66]
Intensified lipogenesis	↓ Expression of the genes of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1, acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase 2, and fatty acid synthase, ↑ activated 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (SREBP-1c inhibitor)	[60,62,65,66]
Reduced lipolysis	↑ Expression of the gene of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (fatty acid catabolism enhancer) and acyl-CoA oxidase	[60,62]
Bile acid metabolism disorders	↑ Expression of the gene of bile salt export pump, farnesoid X recetor, cholesterol 7a-hydroxylase, sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide, ↓ the content of bile acids in the liver tissues	[62]
Oxidative stress	↓ Total reactive oxygen species, lipid peroxidates, and malondialdehyde and ↑ glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase in the liver tissue	[60,61,65,66]
Liver inflammation	↓ Expression of the genes of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1-beta and 6 and the content of NF-κB in the liver	[60]
Death of hepatocytes	↓ Serum aminotransferases	[60,61,65]
Insulin resistance	↓ HOMA-IR, insulin, resistin	[63,64]
Systemic inflammation	↓ Serum tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1-beta and 6	[60,64]
Bacterial translocation	↓ Serum lipopolysaccharide	[64]
Increased gut permeability	↑ Amount of proteins of tight junction in the gut	[64]
Disorders of the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids	↓ Serum total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, glucose, triglycerides, and free fatty acids, ↑ expression of the gene of low-density lipoprotein receptor	[60-62,65,66]