Hepatic encephalopathy: Lessons from preclinical studies

Table 3 Brief description of findings obtained with types B and C experimental models of hepatic encephalopathy

Experimental model	Animal species	Biological findings	Clinical Signs
Portacaval anastomosis	Rats, dog, rabbit, pig	Increased brain ammonia/glutamine	Altered circadian cycle, hypokinesia, reduced memory and learning ability
Congenital portacaval shunts	Dogs, cats	Hyperammonemia	Hepatic dysfunction, psychomotor dysfunction, motor signs
Graded portal vein stenosis	Rats	Increased brain ammonia/glutamine	Minimal hepatic encephalopathy, loss of activity, altered circadian cycle
Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)	Rats, mice	Generation of free radicals, lipoperoxidation, tissue fibrosis, increased hepatic membrane permeability	Hepatic failure, motor activity dysfunction
Bile duct ligation	Rats	Bacterial translocation, immune system dysfunction, hyperammonemia	Liver failure, portal hypertension, decreased locomotor activities due to low-grade encephalopathy