Stem cell therapy: A promising therapeutic approach for skeletal muscle atrophy

Table 1 The potential role of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in the treatment of skeletal muscle atrophy

Resouce	Mechanism	Function	Ref.
UC-MSCs	Releasing circHIPK3, while circHIPK3 down-regulates miR-421, leading to increased expression of FOXO3a, thereby inhibiting IL-1β and IL-18	Accelerate repair of ischemic muscle injury in mice	[108]
	hUC-MSCs or hUC-MSC-derived exosomes induce the activation of AMPK/ULK1 signal and enhancement of autophagy	Alleviate muscle atrophy induced by diabetes and obesity in mice	[84]
	Down-regulating IL-6 and IL-1β, up-regulating IL-10, and regulating inflammation of injured nerves	Promote the recovery of motor function and regeneration of axons, alleviated denervated gastrocnemius atrophy in rats	[109]
	Regulating the miR-132-3p/FoxO3 axis	Improve age-related muscle atrophy in a mouse model	[110]
ADSCs	Promoting peripheral nerve regeneration via optimizing SC function	Alleviate denervated muscle atrophy in rats	[111]
	Inhibiting inflammation, enhancing proliferation of muscle satellite cells, resisting cell senescence and promoting angiogenesis	Maintain muscle homeostasis, promote muscle regeneration in a mouse model of cardiotoxin-induced injury	[112,113]
	Preventing the atrophy, fatty infiltration, inflammation, and vascularization of muscles	Decrease atrophy and degeneration associated with torn rotator cuffs, and improve muscle regeneration in rats	[114]
	Improving motor performance; protecting lumbar motoneurons, neuromuscular junction, and muscle, decreasing glial cells activation	Protect neuromuscular junction and muscle in SOD1 (G93A) murine model	[115]
BMSCs	Promoting M2 macrophages polarization, reducing the production of inflammatory cytokines, upregulating anti-inflammatory factors expression	Attenuate muscle injury and promote muscle healing in mice with hit injury	[116]
	Foxo1 expression was inhibited by up-regulating the miR486-5p/Foxo1 axis	Inhibit dexamethasone-induced muscle atrophy in mice	[117]
	M2 macrophage polarization is regulated by NF-κB pathway to reduce inflammatory pain, and myeloid axon regeneration is enhanced by MEK/ERK pathway	Improve denervated muscle atrophy and further promote functional recovery in rats	[106,107]

UC-MSCs: Umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stromal cells; FOXO3a: Forkhead box O3a; IL: Interleukin; hUC-MSCs: Human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stromal cells; AMPK: AMP-activated protein kinase; ULK1: UNC-51-like kinases 1; ADSCs: Adipose-derived stem cells; SC: Schwann cell; BMSCs: Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-κB; MEK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase; ERK: Extracellular signal-regulated kinase.