How the interplay among the tumor microenvironment and the gut microbiota influences the stemness of colorectal cancer cells

Table 3 Microorganisms present in the intestinal mucosa associated with stemness in colorectal cancer

Microorganism	Action	Ref.
Bacterioides dorei, Bacterioides vulgatum, Parabacterioides distasonis, Lachnoclostridium sp., and Mordavella sp	Inhibit the action of factors related to CCSC phenotype. Inhibit CRC development and progression	[59,114]
Bacterioides fragilis	Releases an enterotoxin that promotes immune TME cells activation with secretion of factors related to CCSC	[118]
Citrobacter rodentium	Protects the inflammatory CCSC niche	[121]
Clostridium septicum	Contributes to CRC development and to the activation of signaling pathways associated with CCSC	[59]
Enterococcus faecalis	Induces the expression of TGF-β, thereby activating signaling pathways associated with CCSC. Activates Wnt/β-catenin signaling and pluripotent transcription factors associated with CCSC	[113,115]
Escherichia coli	Upregulates the expression of CCSC-associated genes. Releases genotoxin colibactin which induces the production of growth factors related to CCSC	[112,117,79]
Fusobacterium nucleatum	Stimulates the secretion of immune factors related to CCSC	[79]
Helicobacter pylori	Promotes the expression of markers associated with stemness	[101,102]
Lactobacillus acidophilus	Promotes proliferation or death in CCSC depending on dose	[104]
Porphyromonas gingivalis	Promotes the expression of markers associated with stemness	[101,102]
Shigella, and Citrobacter	Upregulate the expression of CCSC-associated genes	[112]

CCSC: Colorectal cancer stem cells; CRC: Colorectal cancer; TGF-β: Transforming growth factor beta; TME: Tumor microenvironment.