Advancing the precision management of inflammatory bowel disease in the era of omics approaches and new technology

Table 2 Biomarkers predicting treatment responses

Type of agent	Biomarker	Sample	Outcome
5-ASA	Initial clinical activity, early treatment response of 5-ASA[46]	-	Predict long-term corticosteroid-free remission
GCs	FC, UCEIS[47]	Feces	Predict the early outcome of GCs treatment
Biologics
TNF-α inhibitors	mTNF[51]	Endoscopy	Predict anti-TNF-α efficacy
	TNF production capacity of PBMCs[52]	Blood	Predict anti-TNF-α efficacy
	OSM[53,54]	Serum	Upregulate in anti-TNF-α non-responders
	TREM1 expression[55]	Blood and intestinal biopsies	Predict anti-TNF-α efficacy
	Antibodies: ADA, pANCA, anti-OmpC[56]	Serum	Associate with the response to infliximab
	Mucosal TNF gene expression and IL1RL1- transcripts[57]	Intestinal biopsies	Predict long-term remission after discontinuation of anti-TNF-α therapy
IL-23 inhibitors	IL-22, IL-17[58]	Serum	Predict anti-IL-23 efficacy
Integrin inhibitors	α4β7 on T, B, and NK cells[60,61]	Blood and endoscopy	Predict responses to vedolizumab
	α4β7, VCAM-1, ICAM-1[62,63]	Serum	Remain controversial
	IL-6, IL-8[64]	Serum	Associate with the response to vedolizumab

ADA: Anti-drug antibodies; ASA: Aminosalicylates; FC: Fecal calprotectin; GCs: Glucocorticoids; ICAM-1: Intercellular adhesion molecule-1; mTNF: Membrane-bound tumour necrosis factor; OmpC: Escherichia coli outer membrane porin; OSM: Oncostatin M; pANCA: Perinuclear anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic antibody; PBMC: Peripheral blood mononuclear cell; UCEIS: Ulcerative Colitis Endoscopic Index of Severity; VCAM-1: Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; TREM1: Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1.