Potential risk factors for constipation in the community

Table 8 Smoking and constipation

Ref.	Location	Sample size	Age range (yr)	Definition of constipation	Smoking status	Prevalence (%)	Odds ratio (95%CI)	P value
Choung et al[65], 2012	United States	2853	> 20	Rome II	Current smoker	26.3	NR	NS
Choung et al[83], 2007	United States	7805	20-95	BDQ	Non-smoker; Smoker	16; 20	1.00; 1.40 (0.7, 2.7)	NS
Talley et al[49], 1993	United States	690	30-64	Rome I	No cigarettes; > 15/d	20.9; 12.3	4.7 (1.6, 13.7)	< 0.05
Chang et al[46], 2007	United States	523	30-64	Rome III	Never; Current; Past; Ever	18.9; 17.3; 17.0; 17.1	1.0; 0.90 (0.47, 1.73); 0.88 (0.53, 1.45); 0.89 (0.57, 1.39)	NS
Haug et al[71], 2002	Norway	62651	> 20	Self-report (12 mo)	Non-smoker; Smoker	NR; NR	1.00; 0.83	NR
Papatheodoridis et al[51], 2010	Greece	1000	15-64	Rome III or self-report (12 mo)	Active; Inactive	16; 16	NR	0.98
Lu et al[56], 2006	Taiwan	2018	> 20	Rome II	Non-smoker; Smoker	8.81; 6.51	NR	NS

¹Calculated from data published.

NR: Not reported; NS: Not significant; BDQ: Bowel disease questionnaire (similar to Rome criteria).