Potential risk factors for constipation in the community

Table 4 Educational level and constipation

Ref.	Location	Sample size	Age range (yr)	Definition of constipation	Educational level	Prevalence (%)	Odds ratio (95%CI)	P value
Everhart et al[67], 1989	United States	11204	25-74	Self-report (NTP)	> 8 yr; 9-11 yr; > 12 yr	NR	2.78; 1.35; 1	NR
Talley et al[49], 1993	United States	690	30-64	Rome I	< HS; HS; > HS	23.3; 18.4; 18.0	NR	NR
Stewart et al[68], 1999	United States	10018	> 18	Rome II	< 12 yr; 12 yr; 13-15.9 yr; > 16 yr	NR	1; 1.49; 1.41; 1.39	NR
Pare et al[45], 2001	Canada	1149	> 18	Self-report (3 mo)	Grade school; Some HS; HS; Diploma; Tech school; Some college; College; Grad school	28.8; 35.1; 24.6; 29.4; 20.5; 25.4; 31.5; 19.6	NR	NR
Pare et al[45], 2001	Canada	1149	> 18	Rome I	Grade school; Some HS; HS; Diploma; Tech school; Some college; College; Grad school	14.3; 23.8; 18.8; 22.1; 15.0; 9.9; 17.2; 11.3	NR	NR
Pare et al[45], 2001	Canada	1149	> 18	Rome II	Grade school; Some HS; HS; Diploma; Tech school; Some college; College; Grad school	4.3; 21.7; 18.6; 18.4; 12.0; 8.6; 6.5; 10.0	NR	NR
Wald et al[61], 2008	United States	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	24.7; 18.9; 15.4	1.82 (1.16, 2.86)	< 0.01
Choung et al[83], 2007	United States	3022	20-95	BDQ	< HS; HS/College; > College	NR	1.3 (0.5, 3.1); 1.0; 0.8 (0.5, 3.1)	NS
Chang et al[46], 2007	United States	523	30-64	Rome III	< HS; HS/College; > College	16.7; 19.8; 14.8	0.81 (0.27, 2.46);1.00; 0.70 (0.43, 1.14)	NR
Choung et al[65], 2012	United States	2853	> 20	Rome II	< HS; HS/College; > College	7.0; 26.5; 20.3	NR	0.002
Wald et al[61], 2008	United Kingdom	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	9.4; 7.0; 7.3	NR	NR
Wald et al[61], 2008	France	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	17.6; 13.0; 12.7	1.48 (1.01, 2.15)	< 0.05
Wald et al[61], 2008	Germany	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	5.6; 5.5; 4.5	NR	NR
Enck et al[75], 2016	Germany		> 18	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	19.6; 15.3; 15.6	NR	< 0.001
Ebling et al[50], 2014	Croatia	658	20-69	Rome III	< Elementary; Elementary; High school; Bachelor; University	50.0; 25.6; 20.2; 23.0; 23.4	0.278; 0.229; 0.248; 0.383	0.065; 0.028; 0.060; 0.178
Wald et al[61], 2008	Italy	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	8.0; 8.1; 6.0	NR	NR
Papatheodoridis et al[51], 2010	Greece	1000	15-64	Rome III or self-report (12 mo)	Primary or less; Secondary; Higher	18; 14; 17	NR	0.31
Rey et al[55], 2014	Spain	1500	> 18	Rome III	Primary Secondary; University	19; 18; 20	NR	NR
Garrigues et al[60], 2004	Spain	349	18-65	Self-report (12 mo)	Basic; Primary Secondary or more	31.4; 26.4; 30.3	NR	NS
Wald et al[59], 2010	Argentina	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	15.1; 13.4; 14.8	NR	NR
Wald et al[59], 2010	Colombia	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	25.2; 21.0; 24.5	NR	NR
Wald et al[59], 2010	Brazil	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	17.0; 15.2; 26.5	0.58 (0.36, 0.92)	< 0.03
Wald et al[59], 2010	China	2100	15-60	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	10.2; 16.5; 14.4	NR	NR
Wald et al[59], 2010	Indonesia	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	10.6; 13.2; 19.0	NR	NR
Wald et al[59], 2010	Korea	2000	> 15	Self-report (12 mo)	< Secondary; Secondary; Tertiary	18.1; 16.7; 16.0	NR	NR
Cheng et al[57], 2003	Hong Kong	3282	18-80	Rome II	Nil; Primary; Junior HS; HS; Matriculation; University	14.5; 12.2; 14.8; 12.6; 14.0; 14.1	NR	NR
Sorouri et al[53], 2010	Iran	18180	NR	Rome III	Illiterate; < Diploma; HS diploma; University; > Masters	2.9; 2.1; 2.5; 2.1; 1.6	NR	NR
Moezi et al[52], 2018	Iran	9264	40-75	Rome IV	Illiterate; Other	9.0; 7.2	NR	0.002
Howell et al[48], 2006	Australia	1673	25-64	Rome II	Low; Low-mid; Mid-upper; High	30.6; 31.6; 38.9; 25.1	1.50 (0.97, 2.31); 1.49 (1.02, 2.18); 1.91 (1.33, 2.73)1	0.07; 0.04; 0.001

¹Calculated from published data.

HS: High school; BDQ: Bowel disease questionnaire (similar to Rome criteria); NR: Not reported; NS: Not significant.