Potential risk factors for constipation in the community

Table 16 Medications and constipation

Ref.	Location	Sample size	Age range (yr)	Definition of constipation	Medications	Prevalence (%)	Odds ratio (95%CI)	P value
Fosnes et al[54], 2011	Norway	4622	31-76	Rome II	Digoxin; GTN; Furosemide; Atorvastatin; Tibolone; Levothyroxine; Ibuprofen	NR	NR	0.025; 0.015; 0.001; 0.037; 0.038; < 0.001; 0.001
Talley et al[49], 1993	United States	690	30-64	Rome I	Aspirin > 7 tabs/wk	31.1	2.6 (1.2, 5.7)	< 0.05
Chang et al[46], 2007	United States	523	30-64	Rome III	Paracetamol; Aspirin; NSAIDs	25.3; 23.0; 26.6	1.50 (0.91, 2.47) 1.67 (1.04, 2.70) 1.80 (1.09, 2.98)	NS; < 0.05; < 0.05

GTN: Glyceryl trinitrate; NSAIDs: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; NR: Not reported; NS: Not significant.