Proton pump inhibitors and dysbiosis: Current knowledge and aspects to be clarified

Figure 2 Proton pump inhibitors promote non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-induced enteropathy via microbiota. Murine models demonstrate that proton pump inhibitor (PPI) treatment, in addition to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) therapy, brings about an exacerbation of mucosal damage in the small intestine. PPIs cause a bacterial imbalance, such as the reduction (↓) of Actinobacteria and Bifidobacteria spp., which is responsible for the mucosal damage. Specifically, PPIs increase the expression of bacteria with beta-glucuronidases activity and the consequent spreading of NSAIDs into enterohepatic circulation; ultimately, bile cytotoxicity then causes ulcerative intestinal lesions. The co-administration of Bifidobacteria-enriched suspension restores the gut microbiota and reduces mucosal damage. Germ-free mice are less susceptible to NSAIDs’ harmful effects and they develop NSAID-induced enteropathy through microbiota transfer. PPI: Proton pump inhibitor; NSAID: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.