Glutathione depleting drugs, antioxidants and intestinal calcium absorption

Table 1 Glutathione depletion and the intestinal calcium absorption

	Oxidative stress markers	Effect on intestinal Ca2+ absorption
BSO	↓GSH	↓Ca2+ transfer from lumen-to-blood
MEN	↓GSH ↑ROS and protein carbonyl ↑Mn2+-SOD and GPX Mitochondrial dysfunction	↓Ca2+ transfer from lumen-to-blood ↓IAP and PMCA1b activities
NaDOC	↓GSH ↑ROS	↓Intestinal Ca2+absorption
	Mitochondrial swelling.	↓mRNA PMCA1b
	↑SOD, CAT and GPX	↓PMCA1b, CBD28k and NCX1 protein expression
	↑NO• ↑iNOS protein
FRD	↓GSH ↑.O2−	↓Intestinal Ca2+ absorption
	↑protein carbonyl and nitrotyrosine content	↓IAP activity
	↓SOD and CAT	↓TRPV6, PMCA1b, CBD9k, CLDN 2, CLDN12 and VDR protein expression
	↑NO•

BSO: DL-buthionine-S,R-sulfoximine; CAT: Catalase; CB_D28k: Calbindin D28k; CB_D9k: Calbindin D9k; CLDN 2: Claudin 2; CLDN12: Claudin 12; FRD: Fructose rich diet; GPX: Glutathione peroxidase. GSH: Glutathione; IAP: Intestinal alkaline phosphatase. MEN: menadione. Mn²⁺-SOD: Mn²⁺-superoxide dismutase. NaDOC: sodium deoxycholate.NCX1: Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger; NO•: Nitric oxide; PMCA1b: Plasma membrane Ca²⁺ATPase; SOD: Superoxide dismutase; TRPV6: Transient receptor potential vanilloid type 6; VDR: Vitamin D receptor.