Dysphagia: Thinking outside the box

Table 1 Medications implicated in causing dysphagia

Medication	Putative mechanism
Antipsychotic, e.g., olanzapine[63], clozapine[62]	Block dopamine receptors
Tricyclic antidepressant, e.g., amitriptyline[56]	Anticholinergic, decreased saliva and impairment secondary peristalsis
Opioids[90]	Increase lower oesophageal contractility, oesophageal spasm
Iron supplements	Localised oesophagitis[58,59]
Potassium supplements
NSAIDs
Tetracyclines
Macrolides
bisphosphonates
Calcium channel blockers	Smooth muscle relaxation (including lower oesophageal sphincter)[56]
Nitrates
Alcohol
Theophylline