Gastrointestinal neuroendocrine peptides/amines in inflammatory bowel disease

Figure 2 Gastrointestinal endocrine cells have sensory microvilli projecting into the gastrointestinal lumen that register and respond to luminal stimuli by releasing their hormones into the lamina propria. The released hormones exert their effects via three modes of action: (1) entering the circulating blood and reaching distant targets (endocrine mode); (2) acting locally on nearby structures (paracrine mode); or (3) via synaptic activity. Reproduced from reference 46 with permission from the authors and the publisher.